Psychoactive Plant Database - Neuroactive Phytochemical Collection

1. Antioxidants (Basel). 2024 Sep 4;13(9):1082. doi: 10.3390/antiox13091082.

Exploring the Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Potential of Saffron (Crocus 
sativus) Tepals Extract within the Circular Bioeconomy.

Frusciante L(1), Geminiani M(1)(2), Shabab B(1), Olmastroni T(1), Scavello G(1), 
Rossi M(1), Mastroeni P(1), Nyong'a CN(1), Salvini L(3), Lamponi S(1)(2), Parisi 
ML(1)(4), Sinicropi A(1)(4), Costa L(1), Spiga O(1)(5), Trezza A(1), Santucci 
A(1)(2)(5).

Author information:
(1)Dipartimento di Biotecnologie Chimica e Farmacia, Università di Siena, Via 
Aldo Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy.
(2)SienabioACTIVE, Università di Siena, Via Aldo Moro, 53100 Siena, Italy.
(3)Fondazione Toscana Life Sciences, Strada del Petriccio e Belriguardo, 53100 
Siena, Italy.
(4)LifeCARES, Via Emilio Vezzosi 15, 52100 Arezzo, Italy.
(5)ARTES 4.0, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio, 34, 56025 Pontedera, Italy.

Repurposing saffron (Crocus sativus) waste presents a sustainable strategy for 
generating high-value products within the bioeconomy framework. Typically, 
flower components are discarded after stigma harvest, resulting in significant 
waste-350 kg of tepals per kilogram of stigmas. This research employed a 
comprehensive approach, integrating bioactivity studies (in vitro and in silico) 
with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) evaluations, to extract and assess bioactive 
compounds from C. sativus tepals sourced in Tuscany, Italy. Phytochemical 
characterization using UPLC-MS/MS revealed a high abundance and variety of 
flavonoids in the hydro-ethanolic extract (CST). The antioxidant capacity was 
validated through various assays, and the ability to mitigate H2O2-induced 
oxidative stress and enhance fermentation was demonstrated in Saccharomyces 
cerevisiae. This study reports that C. sativus tepals extract reduces oxidative 
stress and boosts ethanol fermentation in yeast, paving the way for applications 
in the food and biofuels sectors. Further validation in RAW 264.7 macrophages 
confirmed CST's significant anti-inflammatory effects, indicating its potential 
for pharmaceutical, cosmeceutical, and nutraceutical applications. In silico 
studies identified potential targets involved in antioxidant and 
anti-inflammatory processes, shedding light on possible interaction mechanisms 
with Kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside (KOS-3), the predominant compound in the 
extract. The integration of LCA studies highlighted the environmental benefits 
of this approach. Overall, this research underscores the value of using 
waste-derived extracts through "green" methodologies, offering a model that may 
provide significant advantages for further evaluations compared to traditional 
methodologies and supporting the circular bioeconomy.

DOI: 10.3390/antiox13091082
PMCID: PMC11428576
PMID: 39334741

Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.


2. J Sci Food Agric. 2024 Sep 17. doi: 10.1002/jsfa.13887. Online ahead of print.

Quercetin and kaempferol from saffron petals alleviated hydrogen 
peroxide-induced oxidative damage in B16 cells.

Zhang Y(1), Gong Y(1), Hu J(1), Zhang L(2), Benito MJ(3), Usmanov D(4), 
Nishanbaev SZ(4), Song X(1), Zou L(2), Wu Y(1).

Author information:
(1)School of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science 
and Technology, Zhejiang, China.
(2)Hangzhou Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Zhejiang, China.
(3)School of Agricultural Engineering, University of Extremadura, Badajoz, 
Spain.
(4)Institute of the Chemistry of Plant Substances, Academy of Sciences of the 
Republic of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan.

BACKGROUND: Saffron petals are usually considered as waste after saffron 
harvest. However, saffron petals contain many important phytochemical components 
(e.g. quercetin and kaempferol), which may alleviate oxidative damage in human 
cells.
RESULTS: The contents of flavonoids and crocin in different parts of saffron 
were analyzed. The protective effects of flavonoids from saffron on oxidative 
damage of B16 cells were investigated. Saffron stigma contained high contents of 
crocin and picrocrocin, whereas flavonoid content (quercetin, 4.03 ± 0.33 mg g-1 
DW; kaempferol, 47.80 ± 0.60 mg g-1 DW) was higher in saffron petals than in 
other parts. Incubation of B16 cells with quercetin (10-30 μmol L-1) and 
kaempferol (20-30 μmol L-1) obtained from saffron extracts could significantly 
increase the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and the activity of 
NADPH:dehydrogenase quinone-1 (NQO1) to alleviate H2O2-induced oxidative damage. 
Quercetin was better than kaempferol in increasing NQO1 activity and T-AOC. 
Quercetin extracted from saffron petals could induce NQO1 expression through 
regulating kelch-like ECH-associated protein-1/nuclear factor erythroid 
2-related factor-2 signaling pathway to protect B16 cells from oxidative damage.
CONCLUSION: The content of kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside and 
quercetin-3-O-sophoroside was higher in saffron petals than in other parts of 
saffron. The kaempferol and quercetin obtained from saffron petals could enhance 
the activity of antioxidant enzyme NQO1 and T-AOC in B16 cells. This indicated 
that saffron petals, as a potential functional food, may prevent diseases caused 
by oxidative stress. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

© 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.13887
PMID: 39287449


3. Molecules. 2024 Jun 28;29(13):3080. doi: 10.3390/molecules29133080.

Distribution of Main Bioactive Compounds from Saffron Species as a Function of 
Infusion Temperature and Time in an Oil/Water System.

Criado-Navarro I(1)(2)(3)(4), Ledesma-Escobar CA(1)(2)(3)(4), Pérez-Juan P(5), 
Priego-Capote F(1)(2)(3)(4).

Author information:
(1)Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba, 
Spain.
(2)Chemical Institute for Energy and Environment (iQUEMA), University of 
Córdoba, 14014 Córdoba, Spain.
(3)Maimónides Institute of Biomedical Research (IMIBIC), Reina Sofía University 
Hospital, University of Córdoba, 14004 Córdoba, Spain.
(4)CIBER of Frailty and Healthy Ageing (CIBERFES), Carlos III Health Institute, 
28029 Madrid, Spain.
(5)Azafrán de La Mancha Protected Designation of Origin Regulatory Council, 
45720 Camuñas, Spain.

Most research on saffron has focused on its composition and beneficial effects, 
while the culinary perspective to enhance its gastronomic potential remains 
unexplored. This study aims to define the transfer of the main compounds 
responsible for color, flavor, and aromatic properties, evaluating three 
critical variables: temperature (60 °C, 80 °C and 100 °C), infusion time 
(ranging from 10 to 30 min), and the composition of the medium (water, oil, and 
water/oil). Samples were analyzed using the LC-QTOF MS/MS and ISO 3632-1:2011 
methods. The major compounds were crocins, including trans-crocin and 
picrocrocin. Among the flavonoids, kaempferol 3-O-sophoroside stands out. 
Regarding extraction conditions, crocins, glycoside flavonoids, and picrocrocin 
were enhanced in water, the former in 100% water and at low temperatures, while 
picrocrocin proved to be the most stable compound with extraction favored at 
high temperatures. The variable with the greatest incidence of picrocrocin 
isolation seemed to be the concentration of water since water/oil compositions 
reported higher concentrations. Safranal and kaempferol were enriched in the oil 
phase and at lower temperatures. This study provides a chemical interpretation 
for the appropriate gastronomic use of saffron according to its versatility. 
Finally, the determination of safranal using the ISO method did not correlate 
with that obtained using chromatography.

DOI: 10.3390/molecules29133080
PMCID: PMC11243231
PMID: 38999032 [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare the following financial 
interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing 
interests: Pedro Pérez-Juan is affiliated with the PDO Saffron from La Mancha. 
Other authors declare no conflicts of interest.


4. Molecules. 2024 Jun 1;29(11):2600. doi: 10.3390/molecules29112600.

Exploring Phenolic Compounds Extraction from Saffron (C. sativus) Floral 
By-Products Using Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction, Deep Eutectic Solvent 
Extraction, and Subcritical Water Extraction.

Masala V(1), Jokić S(2), Aladić K(2), Molnar M(2), Tuberoso CIG(1).

Author information:
(1)Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Cagliari, 
Cittadella Universitaria di Monserrato, S.P. Monserrato-Sestu km 0.700, 09042 
Monserrato, Italy.
(2)Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of 
Osijek, Franje Kuhača 18, 31000 Osijek, Croatia.

Saffron (Crocus sativus) floral by-products are a source of phenolic compounds 
that can be recovered and used in the nutraceutical, pharmaceutical, or cosmetic 
industries. This study aimed to evaluate the phenolic compounds' extraction 
using green extraction techniques (GETs) in saffron floral by-products and to 
explore the influence of selected extraction techniques on the phytochemical 
composition of the extracts. Specifically, ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), 
subcritical water extraction (SWE), and deep eutectic solvents extraction (DESE) 
were used. Phenolic compounds were identified with (HR) LC-ESI-QTOF MS/MS 
analysis, and the quantitative analysis was performed with HPLC-PDA. Concerning 
the extraction techniques, UAE showed the highest amount for both anthocyanins 
and flavonoids with 50:50% v/v ethanol/water as solvent (93.43 ± 4.67 mg/g of 
dry plant, dp). Among SWE, extraction with 96% ethanol and t = 125 °C gave the 
best quantitative results. The 16 different solvent mixtures used for the DESE 
showed the highest amount of flavonoids (110.95 ± 5.55-73.25 ± 3.66 mg/g dp), 
while anthocyanins were better extracted with choline chloride:butane-1,4-diol 
(16.0 ± 0.80 mg/g dp). Consequently, GETs can be employed to extract the 
bioactive compounds from saffron floral by-products, implementing recycling and 
reduction of waste and fitting into the broader circular economy discussion.

DOI: 10.3390/molecules29112600
PMCID: PMC11173527
PMID: 38893476 [Indexed for MEDLINE]

Conflict of interest statement: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.


5. Saudi Pharm J. 2024 Jul;32(7):102106. doi: 10.1016/j.jsps.2024.102106. Epub
2024  May 16.

α-Glucosidase, butyrylcholinesterase and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory 
activities of phenolic compounds from Carthamus tinctorius L. flowers: In silico 
and in vitro studies.

Alotaibi JAM(1), Sirwi A(1), El-Halawany AM(2), Esmat A(3), Mohamed GA(1), 
Ibrahim SRM(4)(5), Alzain AA(6), Halawa TF(7), Safo M(8), Abdallah HM(1).

Author information:
(1)Department of Natural Products and Alternative Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, 
King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
(2)Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Giza 
11562, Egypt.
(3)Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, King Abdulaziz 
University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
(4)Preparatory Year Program, Department of Chemistry, Batterjee Medical College, 
Jeddah 21442, Saudi Arabia.
(5)Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, Assiut 
71526, Egypt.
(6)Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of 
Gezira, Wad Madani 21111, Sudan.
(7)Department of Pediatrics, Aberdeen Hospital, Newglasgow, Nova Scotia Health 
Authorities, Nova Scotia, Canada.
(8)Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Center for Drug Discovery, School of 
Pharmacy, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 East Leigh Street, Richmond, VA 
23298, USA.

Chemical investigation of Carthamus tinctorius L. flowers resulted in isolation 
of seven metabolites that were identified as; p-Hydroxybenzoic acid (1), trans 
hydroxy cinnamic acid (2), kaempferol-6-C-glucoside (3), astragalin (4), 
cartormin (5), kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (6), and kaempferol-3-O-sophoroside 
(7). Virtual screening of the isolated compounds against human intestinal 
α-glucosidase, acetylcholinesterase, and butyrylcholinesterase was carried out. 
Additionally, the antioxidant activity of the bioactive compounds was assessed. 
Compounds 1 and 5 exhibited moderate binding affinities to acetylcholinesterase 
(binding energy -5.33 and -4.18 kcal/mol, respectively), compared to donepezil 
(-83.33kcal/mol). Compounds 1-7 demonstrated weak affinity to 
butyrylcholinesterase. Compounds 2 and 4 displayed moderate binding affinity to 
human intestinal α-glucosidase,compared to Acarbose (reference compound), 
meanwhile compound 2 exhibited lower affinity. Molecular dynamic studies 
revealed that compound 4 formed a stable complex with the binding site 
throughout a 100 ns simulation period. The in-vitro results were consistent with 
the virtual experimental results, as compounds 1 and 5 showed mild inhibitory 
effects on acetylcholinesterase (IC50s 150.6 and 168.7 µM, respectively). 
Compound 4 exhibited moderate α-glucosidase inhibition with an IC50 of 93.71 µM. 
The bioactive compounds also demonstrated notable antioxidant activity in ABTS 
[2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)], ORAC (oxygen 
radical-absorbance capacity), and metal chelation assays, suggesting their 
potential in improving dementia in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and mitigating 
hyperglycemia.

© 2024 The Author(s).

DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2024.102106
PMCID: PMC11145550
PMID: 38831925