Worldwide, there are plants known as psychoactive plants that naturally contain psychedelic active components. They have a high concentration of neuroprotective substances that can interact with the nervous system to produce psychedelic effects. Despite these plants' hazardous potential, recreational use of them is on the rise because of their psychoactive properties. Early neuroscience studies relied heavily on psychoactive plants and plant natural products (NPs), and both recreational and hazardous NPs have contributed significantly to the understanding of almost all neurotransmitter systems. Worldwide, there are many plants that contain psychoactive properties, and people have been using them for ages. Psychoactive plant compounds may significantly alter how people perceive the world.
1. J Chem Ecol. 2018 Oct;44(10):957-964. doi: 10.1007/s10886-018-0993-6. Epub 2018 Jul 26. Complex Interactions among Sheep, Insects, Grass, and Fungi in a Simple New Zealand Grazing System. Bultman TL(1), McNeill MR(2), Krueger K(3), De Nicolo G(2), Popay AJ(4), Hume DE(5), Mace WJ(4), Fletcher LR(6), Koh YM(7), Sullivan TJ(8). Author information: (1)Biology Department, Hope College, 35 E. 12th St., Holland, MI, 49423, USA. bultmant@hope.edu. (2)AgResearch, Canterbury Agric. Sci. Centre, Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand. (3)Biology Department, Hope College, 35 E. 12th St., Holland, MI, 49423, USA. (4)AgResearch - Ruakura Research Centre, Hamilton, New Zealand. (5)AgResearch, Grasslands Research Centre, Palmerston North, New Zealand. (6), Prebbleton, New Zealand. (7)Mathematics Department, Hope College, Holland, MI, USA. (8)School of Sciences, Indiana University Kokomo, Kokomo, IN, USA. Epichloë fungi (Ascomycota) live within aboveground tissues of grasses and can have important implications for natural and managed ecosystems through production of alkaloids. Nonetheless, vertebrate herbivores may possess traits, like oral secretions, that mitigate effects of alkaloids. We tested if sheep saliva mitigates effects of Epichloë alkaloids on a beetle pest of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.) in a New Zealand pasture setting. Plants with one of several fungal isolates were clipped with scissors, grazed by sheep, or clipped with sheep saliva applied to cut ends of stems. We then assessed feeding damage by Argentine stem weevils on blade segments collected from experimental plants. We found that clipping plants induced synthesis of an alkaloid that reduces feeding by beetles and that sheep saliva mitigates this effect. Unexpectedly, the alkaloid (perloline) that explains variation in beetle feeding is one produced not by the endophyte, but rather by the plant. Yet, these effects depended upon fungal isolate. Such indirect, complex interactions may be much more common in both managed and natural grassland systems than typically thought and could have implications for managing grazing systems. DOI: 10.1007/s10886-018-0993-6 PMID: 30046969 [Indexed for MEDLINE] 2. J Chem Ecol. 2003 Jun;29(6):1319-28. doi: 10.1023/a:1024253117649. Does mowing height influence alkaloid production in endophytic tall fescue and perennial ryegrass? Salminen SO(1), Grewal PS, Quigley MF. Author information: (1)Department of Entomology, The Ohio State University, Wooster, Ohio 44691-4096, USA. salminen.1@osu.edu The mutualistic symbiosis following infection of tall fescue, Festuca arundinacea, and perennial ryegrass, Lolium perenne, by fungal endophyte (Neotyphodium spp.) results in the production of alkaloids that are feeding deterrents or toxic to insects and livestock. If the levels of the alkaloids can be manipulated by cultural practices in the grasses that are used for home lawns and golf courses, this could alleviate the need for pesticide applications in urban environments. We evaluated the influence of mowing height on the levels of some alkaloids in a greenhouse experiment for two consecutive months. In tall fescue, levels of four of the nine alkaloids, including one presumptive alkaloid, showed increased levels with increasing the mowing height from 2.5 to 7.5 cm. The alkaloids were ergonovine, ergocryptine, perloline methyl ether, and an unidentified alkaloid designated as unknown C. In perennial ryegrass, three out of six alkaloids, perloline methyl ether, chanoclavine, and unknown A, showed similar increases. The alkaloid levels in perennial ryegrass showed more variability than those in tall fescue between the two sampling dates. It was clear in both grasses that the relative levels of the alkaloids varied with mowing height, as well as over time. DOI: 10.1023/a:1024253117649 PMID: 12918918 [Indexed for MEDLINE] 3. J Anim Sci. 1992 Sep;70(9):2779-86. doi: 10.2527/1992.7092779x. The effect of alkaloids and seed extracts of endophyte-infected tall fescue on prolactin secretion in an in vitro rat pituitary perfusion system. Strickland JR(1), Cross DL, Jenkins TC, Petroski RJ, Powell RG. Author information: (1)Animal, Dairy, and Veterinary Sciences Department, Clemson University, SC 29634-0361. The objective of this research was to measure the effects of endophyte-infected tall fescue seed extract and various alkaloids associated with the endophyte on in vitro prolactin secretion by rat hemipituitaries. Rat anterior pituitaries (AP) were dissected into halves and placed in temperature-controlled culture chambers (37 degrees C). The tissue was perfused with culture media at a flow rate of 12 mL/h. After perfusion for at least 90 min with control media, AP halves were exposed to their respective treatments for 15 min before they were returned to the control media. The treatments for Exp. 1 were .01 micrograms of alpha-ergocryptine/mL of culture medium, .01 microgram of ergonovine/mL of culture medium, .01 gram-equivalents of endophyte-infected tall fescue seed/mL of culture medium, and .01 gram-equivalents of endophyte free tall fescue seed/mL of culture medium. Treatments for Exp. 2 consisted of 10(-4), 10(-6), and 10(-8) M concentrations of perloline, N-formyl loline, N-acetyl loline, N-methyl loline, and alpha-ergocryptine. alpha-Ergocryptine suppressed (P less than .10) prolactin secretion in both experiments. Ergonovine and perloline both stimulated (P less than .10) prolactin secretion. The loline alkaloids (N-formyl loline, N-acetyl loline, N-methyl loline) had no effect on prolactin secretion. The endophyte-infected seed extract treatment suppressed (P less than .10) prolactin secretion. The endophyte-free seed extract treatment had no effect on prolactin secretion. In Exp. 2, prolactin secretion from AP responded to alpha-ergocryptine treatment in a dose-dependent fashion.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS) DOI: 10.2527/1992.7092779x PMID: 1399895 [Indexed for MEDLINE] 4. Arch Tierernahr. 1987 Sep;37(9):843-9. doi: 10.1080/17450398709428252. [Perloline content in fodder grasses. 2. Perloline content in selected grass types and its variability in tall fescue and intergeneric tall fescue hybrids]. [Article in German] Robowsky KD(1), Knabe O, Netzband K. Author information: (1)Institut für Futterproduktion Paulinenaue, Akad emie der Landwirtschaftswissenschaften der DDR. The perloline content of fodder grasses is genetically determined and strongly influenced by environmental factors. Tall fescue and meadow fescue show high, perennial and Italian ryegrass low concentrations of perloline. The perloline content of tall fescue can be diminished by bastardization to a level harmless in cattle feeding. DOI: 10.1080/17450398709428252 PMID: 3446095 [Indexed for MEDLINE] 5. Arch Tierernahr. 1987 Sep;37(9):835-42. doi: 10.1080/17450398709428251. [Perloline content in fodder grasses. 1. Quantitative determination of perloline]. [Article in German] Robowsky KD(1), Knabe O, Seyfarth H. Author information: (1)Institut für Futterproduktion Paulinenaue, Akademie der Landwirtschaftswissenschaften der DDR. A colorimetric method for the quantitative determination of perloline in fodder grasses was established. The comparison with the internationally used spectrofluorimetric method shows that the established method is applicable as a routine method. The average variation coefficient of the colorimetric method is 4.9%. The average rediscovery quota was 95.8% (93.8-99.0%). DOI: 10.1080/17450398709428251 PMID: 3446094 [Indexed for MEDLINE]